Origin and Development of Chaitya, Viharas and Rock Cut Caves

 Origin and Development of Chaitya, Viharas and Rock Cut Caves

Chaitya: - The architecture of Chaitya is analogue to that of stūpa. It is a sacred architecture whereas stūpa is a secular one.  It is pertinent to note that the Chaitya is a pre-Buddhist tradition. It was prevalent in large numbers before the advent of Buddhism. A Chaitya is a Buddhist shrine or prayer hall with a stūpa at one end. In modern texts on Indian architecture, the term chaitya-griha is often used to denote an assembly or prayer hall that houses a stūpa. It was the opinion that the Chaitya must be built under a shadow or canopy. At the beginning of Chaitya architecture, it was built under a tree and thought that tree was serving as a canopy. It was technically called Rukhamula Chaitya.  With the passage of time, the beautiful Chaitya architecture sprang into existence mentioned made of the magnificent and imbalanced Chaitya of Karle, Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, Bhaja and so on.

Monasteries: - Monastery architecture is one of the essential Buddhist architecture. It is built and found in large numbers in comparison to stupas and cities. In common parlance, a monastery is constructed as a hostel. The hostel is made for males and females. The female hostel in Buddhist architecture parlance is called a Nunnery and in the christen tradition it is called a Convent.  An early type of Buddhist Viharas (monasteries) consisted of an open court surrounded by empty cells accessible through an entrance porch. The Viharas in India were originally constructed to shelter the monks during the rainy season when it became difficult for them to lead the wanderer’s life. They took on a sacred character when small stūpas (housing sacred relics) and images of the Buddha were installed in the central court. The monastery architecture is built in several geometrical forms like rectangular, square, geometrical shapes etc. there are monasteries which are octagonal architecture. The finest example is from Maharaja-Vihara Monastery at Parihaspura in Kashmir.   This monastery is still extending in ruins. It has been widely described by Acharaya Kalhana in his magnum opus of Rājataraṃgiṇī. There are 22 rooms having a courtyard with a water tank filled with the drainage system lying with modern scientific innovation.

A clear idea of their plan can be obtained from examples in western India, where the Viharas were often excavated into the rock cliffs. This tradition of rock-cut structures spread along the trade routes of Central Asia (as at Bamiyan, Afghanistan), leaving many splendid monuments rich in sculpture and painting (the statues in Afghanistan were destroyed in 2001 by the country’s ruling Taliban)

As the communities of monks grew, great monastic establishments (maha viharas, “great viharas”) developed that consisted of clusters of viharas and associated stupas and temples. Renowned centres of learning, or universities, grew up at Nalanda, in present-day Bihar state, during the 5th to 12th centuries and at Nagarjunakonda, Andhra Pradesh, in the 3rd–4th centuries.

 

Rock Cut Caves: - The Cave architecture consists of almost all the Buddhist architecture like stūpas, chaityas, monasteries, and nunneries built-in rock-cut caves. The rock-cut cave Buddhist architecture came into existence when the royal patronage and general sport withdrawn in the hinterland. Because of this effect, the Buddhist monks migrated towards hilly and remote areas and there the Buddhist monks built many structures which were carved out of a single massive rock, done with hammer and chisel, and bare hands and these were also known as cave temples. About 1200 such cave temples were built throughout India. The most important and very famous of these are the Karla Caves, Ajanta Caves, Ellora Caves, Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, Aurangabad Caves and the Pandavleni Caves. They were rectangular halls, with finely polished interior walls.

KARLA CAVES

The Karla or Karle Caves are a complex of ancient Indian Buddhist rock-cut cave shrines located in Karli near Lonavala, Maharashtra. The shrines were developed over the period – from the 2nd century BC to the 5th century AD. The oldest cave shrines are believed to date back to 160 BC, having arisen near a major ancient trade route, running eastward from the Arabian Sea into the Deccan. Karli’s location in Maharashtra places it in a region that marks the division between North India and South India. Buddhists, having become identified with commerce and manufacturing through their early association with traders, tended to locate their monastic establishments in natural geographic formations close to major trade routes so as to provide lodging houses for travelling traders. Today, the cave complex is a protected monument under the Archaeological Survey of India.

AJANTA CAVES

The Ajanta Caves locally known as in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra state of India are about 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments which date from the 2nd century BCE to about 480 or 650 CE. The caves include paintings and sculptures described by the government Archaeological Survey of India as “the finest surviving examples of Indian art, particularly painting”, which are masterpieces of Buddhist religious art, with figures of the Buddha and depictions of the Jataka tales. The caves were built in two phases starting around the 2nd century BCE, with the second group of caves built around 400–650 CE according to older accounts, or all in a brief period of 460 to 480 according to the recent proposals of Walter M. Spink. The site is a protected monument in the care of the Archaeological Survey of India, and since 1983, the Ajanta Caves have been a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Cave 9 is part of the heart of the Ajanta complex, begun in the second or first centuries BC. It is a large liturgical hall, with a monolithic stone stūpa carved from the living rock. This cave has a Chaitya gathering hall. There are two early paintings which survive, Frieze of Animals and Herdsmen and Naga Worshippers.

In this way, Buddhist art, and architecture are found in the form of secular and sacred. It contends the aesthetic sense and the utilization aspect of direful life.

 

 

1.      https://www.britannica.com/topic/vihara

2.      https://curatorhall.wordpress.com/2015/08/31/chaitya-halls/

Origin and Development of Stūpa

Buddhist Architecture

Buddhist religious architecture developed in the Indian Subcontinent in the third century BCE. Three types of structures are typically associated with the religious architecture of early Buddhism:

1.      Monasteries (Viharas): Viharas were initially only temporary shelters used by wandering monks during the rainy season, but they later developed to accommodate the growing trend towards Buddhist monasticism. A distinctive type of fortress architecture found in the former and present Buddhist kingdoms of the Himalayas is known as dzongs.

2.      Places to venerate relics (Stūpas):- The initial function of the stupa was the veneration and safe-guarding of the relics of the Buddha. The earliest surviving example of a stupa is in Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh). The Stūpa is a secular architecture.

3.      Shrines or prayer halls (Chaityas or Chaitya Grihas), which later came to be called temples in some places. In accordance with changes in religious practice, stupas were gradually incorporated into chaitya-grihas. These reached their high point in the 1st century BCE, exemplified by the cave complexes of Ajanta and Ellora (Maharashtra). The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya in Bihar is another well-known example.

 Origin and Development of Stūpa: A Stūpa which literally means “heap” or “pile” is a reliquary, a shrine containing the remains of a holy person and/or artifacts (relics) associated with them. The origin of Stupa originating in India may be traced back  to the 6th century BCE as tombs of holy men and evolving afterwards into sanctified sites dedicated to the Buddha (563 - 483 BCE) and later to Arhats, Bodhisattvas (enlightened ones), other saintly figures. It is a hemispherical structure, with a spire at the top, sometimes situated on a base that varies in shape and size (depending on the designated purpose of that particular Stūpa) surrounded by a walkway for visitors. Some Stūpas, such as the Great Stūpa at Sanchi, India, or the Boudhanath Stūpa at Kathmandu, Nepal, are large, ornate structures while others are more modest.

Originally a simple mound of clay or mud, Stūpas evolved from simple funerary monuments to become elaborately decorated objects of veneration. Legend has it that following the cremation of Buddha, his ashes were divided into eight parts and distributed among various rulers to be enshrined at special burial mounds. The Buddha left instructions for his followers that his remains were to be honored in this same way, as described by scholars Robert E. Buswell, jr. and Donald S. Lopez, jr:  “In the [text known as] the Mahaparinibbanasutta, the Buddha says that after he has passed away, his relics should be enshrined in a Stūpa at a crossroads, and that the Stūpa should be honored with garlands, incense, and sandalwood paste. Because of a dispute among his lay followers after his death, his relics were said to be divided into ten portions and distributed to ten groups or individuals, each of whom constructed a Stūpa to enshrine their share of the relics in their home region. (859)”

The construction of Stūpas, on a large scale and associated with Buddhism, began throughout India during the reign of Ashoka the Great (268-232 BCE) of the Mauryan Empire after his conversion to Buddhism. Prior to Ashoka’s reign, there were eight Stūpas (or ten, according to some scholars) dedicated to the Buddha (and containing his cremated remains) at different sites, which correlated to important events in his life. In an effort to spread Buddhism and encourage the enlightenment of his subjects, Ashoka had the remains disinterred and ordered the construction of many more (84,000, according to legend), each one receiving a certain allotment of the remains which empowered the structure with mystical energy. Whichever culture raises a Stūpa, its purpose is to provide a sacred space for people to center themselves on higher thoughts & revitalize themselves spiritually.

The earliest Stūpa architecture was infact, a mount of soil but later on stones, wood and bricks were used to build Stūpas. There are five types of Stūpas:

1.      Relic Stūpas (Shararika): - It is defined as that Stūpa wherein the corporal relics of the Buddha, his disciples, and lay saints are kept.

2.      Object Stūpas (Parabhogika):- It is defined as that Stūpa wherein the chiver, alms bowl, walking stick used by the Buddha is kept.

3.      Commemorative Stūpas: - built to commemorate events in the lives of Buddha or his disciples.

4.      Vistic or Symbolic Stūpas (Uddesika): It is defined as that Stūpa built on the spot which was visited and related to the Buddha.

5.      Votive Stūpas (Vratanushita): It is defined as that Stūpa which is built when someone’s wished is fulfilled.

The most famous and classical example of the development of stupa is at Sanchi in the State of Madhya Pradesh. The complex features the Great Stupa (Mahastupa), temples, pillars, reliefs, and other stupas commissioned by queen of the Ashoka Karubaki in the 3^rd century BCE. Work on the Great Stūpa is said to have been overseen by Ashoka himself who erected one of his pillars, inscribed with his edicts, on the site. The pillar of Ashoka at Sanchi can still be seen at the complex. It was build with dried up bricks. Later on during the Shungha period the Stupa was reinforced by the wet bricks. Thereafter a number of embellishments in the form of Parikarama path, Chatra, Sopaan, Geateway (Torandwar) and so many things were developed.

 

1.      http://www.stupa.org.nz/stupa/intro.htm

Dharmakīrti and his important works

Dharmakīrti was an Indian scholar and one of the Buddhist founders of Indian philosophical logic. He was one of the primary theorists of Buddhist atomism, according to which only items considered to exist are momentary Buddhist atoms and state of consciousness. Dharmakīrti was born in a village named Tirumalai in the Cola country (South India). He was a Brahmin. The time period of Dharmakīrti was dates back to 6^th/7^th century CE. He was a successor of Dignāga and a logician of unsurpassed genius. He studied logic from Īśvarasena who was among din nag people uppal people pupils. Later he went to Nalanda and became a disciple of Dharmapāla (530–561 C.E.) and became a teacher at the famed Nalanda University as well as poet. His theories became normative in the Tibet and are studied to these days as a part of basic monastic curriculum. Dharmakīrti was illusnous disciple of the Dignāga. He was a faithful commentator of Dignāga. It is not that Dharmakīrti made only blindly followed Dignāga. Instead Dharmakīrti made some corrections and added strengthen and force to the arguments with its methods. Dharmakīrti was one of the other great logicians of Buddhist school.

The life of Dharmakīrti, a profound and rigorous philosopher of Indian Buddhism, is a subject of hagiography with little solid data upon which we can confidently rely. If we go by Tibetan sources, he seems to have been born in South India and then to have moved to the great monastic university of Nālandā (in present day Bihar state) where he was supposedly in contact with other Buddhist luminaries, such as Dharmapāla. Tibetan sources describe his life in very colorful terms. Indeed some make him out as initially a Mīmāṃsaka who then broke with that non-Buddhist school; others depict him as extraordinarily skilled in debate and hint at a difficult and arrogant personality. Judging by the opening verses in his most famous (and by far his longest) work, the Pramāṇavārttika (Commentary on Epistemology), Dharmakīrti himself thought that his philosophy would not be understood by his contemporaries because of their small-minded vanity. At the end of the Pramāṇavārttika, he went further and prophesied that his work of unrivalled depth would never receive its proper recognition, but would age in obscurity locked away in itself.

It is still debated in the modern community of researchers on Dharmakīrti whether one should place this philosopher in the seventh century C.E. or in the sixth. Part of the reason for this indecision is that a significant time seems to have elapsed before Dharmakīrti achieved notoriety in India, although it is unclear how much. Erich Frauwallner came out strongly for 600–660 C.E. as Dharmakīrti's dates. One problem is that there may indeed be some counterevidence that would place Dharmakīrti a half-century earlier, inter alia his possible connections with Dharmapāla, a sixth-century idealist philosopher who, according to Tibetan historians, was the monk that ordained Dharmakīrti. Some have thought that there is even a reference to Dharmakīrti in Dharmapāla's commentary to Dignāga's Ālambanaparīkṣā (“Analysis of the object [of perception]”). However, because this commentary is only available to us at this time in Chinese in an unreliable translation by Yijing, it is not clear that the passage in question does in fact refer to Dharmakīrti. Caution or even agnosticism on the matter of Dharmakīrti's dates still seems to be warranted, although the scales seem to be tipping towards an earlier date. Krasser (2012) relies heavily on connections between Dharmakīrti, Bhāviveka and Kumārila to push the dates of Dharmakīrti's activity back to the mid sixth century CE.

Leaving aside the question of dates, Frauwallner (1954) did most likely pin down the order in which Dharmakīrti composed  of his seven works, namely:

1.      1. Pramāṇavārttika,

2.     2.  Pramāṇaviniścaya (“Ascertainment of Epistemology”),

3.      3. Nyāyabindu (“Drop of Reasoning”),

4.     4.  Hetubindu (“Drop of Logical Reasons”), and

5.      5. Vādanyāya (“Logic of Argumentation”).

6.      6. Sambandhaparīkṣā (“Analysis of Relations”) and

7.      7. Saṃtānāntarasiddhi (“Proof of Other Minds”)

The Pramāṇavārttika is the largest and most important works of Dharmakīrti's. It is an unfinished, highly philosophical, commentary on the Pramāṇasamuccaya (“Compendium of Epistemology”) of Dignāga. At various key places in the text we see that Dharmakīrti seems to have formulated some basic ideas as a reaction to now lost commentaries by Dignāga's students, the most important being the commentary on the Pramāṇasamuccaya by Īśvarasena. A notable reaction to Īśvarasena is Dharmakīrti's emphasis on certainty (niścaya). There are also innovations that, as far as we know, were not provoked by earlier commentators. Whether in metaphysics, epistemology or philosophy of language, causal theories carry considerable philosophical weight. These theories are probably to quite a degree original, not found in Dignāga's own writings. In what follows, we will examine what we consider to be the most salient features of Dharmakīrti's philosophy, bringing out inter alia the importance of this causal stance. It is however impossible to discuss all the major themes that were traditionally commented upon by Buddhist scholastic writers on Dharmakīrti. Choices and exclusions had to be made.

Dharmakīrti's fame as a subtitle philosophical thinker and dialection was till recently shrouded in obscurity. Rahul Sankrityayan (9 April 1893 – 14 April 1963), is called the Father of Indian Travelogue Travel literature, has done incredible service not only to Buddhism but to Indian logic by Discovering in Tibet the original Sanskrit version of Pramāṇavārttika  the magnum opus of Dharmakīrti.

 References

1.      https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dharmakiirti/.

Origin of Symbolism-Part 2

 The Dharma Wheel:
 The wheel of Dharma denotes the Buddha’s preaching ("turning") his first sermon with its eight spokes (The eight-fold path). This wheel is also called as the Dhamma Chakka and is often used to represent Buddha himself. It has also universally become the symbol of Buddhism. The dharma wheel has eight spokes, which represent Buddha’s Eightfold Path.

 

Dhama Wheel

https://slideplayer.com/slide/10173560/

The Lotus Flower:  In Buddhist symbolism, the lotus represents the purity of the body, speech, and mind, as if floating above the murky waters of material attachment and physical desire.  The lotus, is symbolic of the individual's journey up through the "mud" of existence, to bloom, with the aid of the Dharma, into pure enlightenment. According to legend, Gautam Buddha's first steps made lotus flowers appear everywhere he stepped. The lotus has been used in many teachings of Buddhism to impart the true nature of all mankind. The roots of the lotus plant are stuck deep in the mud, but it still grows above murky water and blossoms into a beautiful, sweet-smelling flower. The lotus can be analogous to how we rise from our sufferings to reach enlightenment, beauty, and clarity. Different-colored lotus plants mean different things in Buddhism. White means spiritual and mental purity, pink means the traditional Buddha, purple is for mysticism, red means love and compassion, and blue represents wisdom. 

The Bodhi Tree: The Bodhi tree, represents the place of his enlightenment (under a papal ficus tree at Bodhgaya) and also serves to signify the enlightenment experience itself (as well as the very powerful moment of enlightenment, the beginning of Buddhism).

The Throne: The throne, symbolises the Buddha's status as "ruler" of the religious realm, and also, through its emptiness, his passage into final nirvana. The Deer: The deer, evokes both the place of his first sermon, the deer park at Samath, and also the protective qualities of the Dharma. The Stupa: The stupa, the reliquary which contains the Buddha's physical remains, is a powerful symbol of both his physical death and his continued presence in the world.

Later Buddhism added countless other symbols to his iconographic repertoire: in the Mahayana, for instance, the sword becomes a common symbol of the incisive nature of the Buddha's teachings; in the Vajrayana, the vajra, or diamond (or thunderbolt), is a ubiquitous symbol of the pure and unchanging nature of the Dharma.

The first archaeological evidence first comprised of art symbols, mainly stone carvings that date back to the period during which Emperor Asoka reigned. He played a huge role in popularizing Buddhism and helping it spread inside India and beyond. The first actual Buddha images appeared around the first century BCE, so until then the artwork was largely symbolic in nature. Many artwork and symbolism appeared around the 6th century including mandalas and other Tantric symbols. Initially, in East Asia Cultures, Buddhism did not portray the Buddha himself; the first hint of human representation appeared with the Buddha's footprint.  Buddhist art really began to flourish in the second and first centuries BCE, under the patronage of the Sunga dynasty. It was during this period that large monastic complexes were established at Bodhgaya in northern India, at Bharhut and Sanci in central India, at Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda in southern India, and at Bhaja, Nasik, Karli, and other cities in western India. Significantly, however, the Buddha himself is absent from these very early images. Instead of representing his physical form, early Buddhist artisans employed a range of visual symbols to communicate aspects of the Buddha's teachings and life story.

References                                                                                

1.        https://www.ancient-symbols.com/buddhist-symbols.html

2.        https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/897249eaaa174f5187e07abd08a1142

3.        http://factsanddetails.com/world/cat55/sub355/entry-5682.html

4.        https://east-asian-cultures.com/buddhist-symbols/

5.        https://www.invaluable.com/blog/buddhist-art/

6.        http://www.buddhistsymbols.org/

7........https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-royal-asiatic-society/article/art-xviearly-buddhist-symbolism/75F47659A119F9ACB32F89D48CEB9A80

8.        https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/32300878.pdf

9.        https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/36669/1/05_51.2Fogelin.pdf

10.     https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/154759/10/10_chapter%203.pdf

Origin of Symbolism-Part 1

Buddhism is a religion that is centered on compassion and wisdom and dates to way back. For this reason, it has a bucket load of history. 7.1 percent of the total world population is Buddhist- this translates to over 500 million followers worldwide. Buddhism has numerous teachings and symbols that help people to learn about the religion itself. The historical Buddha lived during the 6th century BCE. The use of symbolism in Buddhism may also be attributed to the fact that Buddha used quite a number of images in his teachings. After his death and as Buddhism continued to spread, Buddhism symbols became more common. These symbols may invoke inner peace and awaken deeper states of mind in those who see them.  Each symbol is unique and holds a different meaning or convey a different message.  It may inspire us to achieve our greatest aspirations, values, and potentials. 

 

The symbolism in Buddhism is believed to date back to a couple of centuries that immediately followed Buddha’s death. At this time, people started representing Buddha’s teachings through art and symbols. One of the earliest symbols was the wheel of dharma which Buddha used to illustrate his teachings. The symbols didn’t come from Buddha himself, but were adopted by his followers and were widely taught as representations of the god’s gifts to Buddha after his death and subsequent enlightenment. Often used in meditation practices, these objects are said to help anchor the mind and invoke a deeper understanding of Buddha’s teachings. 

 

Here are some of the most inspiring Buddhist symbols and their meaning. The earliest and most popular symbols in Buddhism include the Buddhapada (foot prints), the lotus flower, the Bodhi tree, the Alms-bowl, the Civara (robes), the four animals related to the Buddha, Bull for Zodiac, Elephant for birth, Horse for great renunciation and Lion for discourse, the stupa, and the Dharma wheel. The lotus flower is used in different instances to represent different things. The wheel also features 8 spokes and all of them have different meanings. The Foot Prints or Buddhapada Buddhapada is the symbol consists of a print of both the feet or might contain the impression of one foot as well. It represents the fact that Buddha was physically present even at the time when the religion of Buddhism consisted of no statues at all. The period from the time the Buddha’s footprints are found is known as an ant-iconic stage. Today, the footprints represent Buddha’s absence since he has now entered nirvana. These footprints ensure the fact that Buddha was a human being, and he resided on the earth. Moreover, these prints provide us with the path that we need to follow. They, therefore, work as a guide for us. Some of the footprints are found naturally, and men have built some of them. The footprint (or foot-prints), which denote both his former physical presence on earth and the reality of his temporal absence

http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/0100_0199/kushanart/buddhapada/buddhapada.html

 

Founders of Buddhist Logic and their Works

 

The Indian logic was spread over three periods:-

1. Ancient

2. Medieval and

3.  Modern

The Indian logic founders and their works

	Ancient	Medieval	Modern
Founder Book Time School	-Aksapada Gautama -Nayaya Sutra -2nd /3rd century CE -Nyāya School	- Dignāga - Pramāṇasamuccaya -5th/ 6th Century CE -Buddhist School	-Gangesa- Upadhayaya -Tattva-Cintamani -13th Century CE -Navya- Nyāya

 

Contribution of Dignāga in the history of Indian logic:-

Introduction: - In the history of Buddhist logic the name of Dignāga occupies a prominent place. He was the founder of Buddhist logic and has been called as “the father of mediaeval Nyāya’ as a whole. He lived at the beginning of 5^th century (480 -540) CE. According to the Tibetan sources he was born in Simha-Vaktra, a shrub of kanchi (Kanchipuram) in the south, in a brahmin family. According to the Tibetan tradition, he took as his spiritual preceptor ‘Nagadatta of Vatsiputriya School, before being expelled and becoming a pupil ‘Vasubandhu’ Dignāga also went to the Nalanda Mahavihara where he defeated a brahmin logician named ‘Sudrajaya’ in a religious discussion. He is said to have died in a jungle of Orissa.

The Dignāga is credited with the authorship of about a hundred treatises on logic. Most of these are still preserved in Chinese and Tibetan translations. I-tsing says that Dignāga treatises on logic were read as textbooks at the time of his visit to India. Among the most important works of the Dignāga is the ‘Pramāṇasamuccaya’ his greatest work and also many other.

Contributions of Dignāga:-

Dignāga is said to have revolutionized entire course of Indian logic which has its beginning in Nyaya-sutra. His magnum opus Pramāṇasamuccaya is both a path finder as well as path breaker. Pramana-Samuccaya’ was the entire thinking of the Dignāga and gave a wide horizon to epistemological thinking. He gave a new meaning to many concepts and also invented new technical words for his logical system sva-laksana (the particular) and samanya-laksana(the universal) are the most notable contributions of the Dignāga to the treatises and history of Indian logic.

 

Some greatest works of the Dignāga are:-

1. Pramāṇasamuccaya (प्रमाण समुच्चय)

2. Alamban-pariksa (आलंबन परीक्षा)

3. Trikalya-pariksa ( त्रिकाल परीक्षा)

4. Hetu-cakra (हेतु चक्र)

5. Nyaya-mukha (न्याय मुख)

Pramāṇasamuccaya (Compendium of the Means of True Knowledge):-

It was corrective and flawless interpretation half Nyāya from Buddhist view point. It was an idealistic account and evolution of epistemology as against the realistic understanding of the phenomena. Pramāṇasamuccaya is the basic point of departure of Buddhist logic. Dignāga inherited inspiration as well as wisdom from his teacher Vasubandhu and composed Pramāṇasamuccaya.  Dignāga examine and ruthlessly criticize the argument of Nyāya school. The conflict started between the Nyayaikas and Buddhist school with the writing of Pramāṇasamuccaya. The conflict between Nyayaikas and Buddhist lasted un-interrupted six long centuries. The result of this long drawn conflict was the production of a vast amount of polemics literature

The seminal work on Buddhist logic and epistemology (pramāṇa) composed in 247 verses by Dignāga. It comprises six chapters:

(1)   Direct Perception (pratyakṣa)                                                             - 48 verses

(2)   Inference for One's Own Benefit (svārtha-anumāṇa)                         - 51  

(3)    Inference for Another's Benefit (parārtha-anumāṇa)                         - 50

(4)   Examination of Examples (dṛṣṭānta-parīkṣa)                                      - 21

(5)   Examination of Exclusion of the Other (anya-apoha-parīkṣā)            - 52

(6)   Examination of Universals (jāti-parīkṣā)                                             - 25

This work was extremely influential throughout India.both within the Buddhist world and beyond, and its contents set the agenda for philosophical debate for many centuries after it was written. Unfortunately, only a few fragments survive of the original Sanskrit although a complete translation is available in Tibetan. The text was widely studied in Tibet until the translation of Dharmakīrti's Pramāṇa-vārttika superseded it in influence, except perhaps among the Nyingma School.